Pragmatism, as a school of philosophy, is a collection of many different ways of thinking. Given the diversity among thinkers and the variety among schools of thought that have adopted this term over the years, the term pragmatism has become all but meaningless in the absence of further qualification. Most of the thinkers who describe themselves as pragmatists point to some connection with practical consequences or real effects as vital components of both meaning and truth. The precise character of these links to pragmata is however as diverse as the thinkers who do the pointing.
Some pragmatists object to the view that beliefs represent reality, and instead argue that beliefs are dispositions which qualify as true or false depending on how helpful a disposition proves in accomplishing the believer's goals. For this type of pragmatist it is only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that theories acquire meaning, and only with a theory's success in this struggle that it becomes true. As a rule, however, pragmatists do not hold that anything that is practical or useful, or that anything that helps to survive merely in the short-term, should be regarded as true. Instead, most of them argue that what should be taken as true is that which contributes the most good over the longest course. In the case of C.S. Peirce's pragmatism, this means that theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices — that is, one should be able to make predictions and test them. Truth is defined, for Peirce, as the ultimate outcome of inquiry by a (usually) scientific community of investigators. For William James and many of his followers, the meaning of any term consisted, rather, in the grasping of the consequences for action that the acceptance of the truth of the term entails. Truth itself, on this view, is not that which contributes the most good to the community, but that which contributes the most good to the individual.
20th Century :: History of Philosophy
Metaphysics :: Philosophy

Adventures in Philosophy: American Pragmatism - Review of the development of this doctrine, from the Radical Academy.
At the End of Pragmatism - Review by Glenn Tinder of the book The Promise of Pragmatism: Modernism and the Crisis of Knowledge and Authority, by John Patrick Diggins. From First Things, 1995.
Meta Description: [ First Things ]
Catholic Encyclopedia: Pragmatism - A 1912 consideration of this doctrine, by William Turner.
Meta Description: [ As a tendency in philosophy, signifies the insistence on usefulness or practical consequences as a test of truth. ]
Columbia Encyclopedia: Pragmatism - Concise article on this school of thought, from the 2001 edition.
Meta Description: [ pragmatism. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001-05 ]
Pragmatism and Umwelt-Theory - Paper by Alexei Sharov, considering the biological relevance of pragmatism.
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Pragmatism: Right for Postmodern America? - Article by Bob Sherman, who contends that according to pragmatism, no objective moral standards exist.
Meta Description: [ Pragmatism says consequences or results determine the morality of the causative actions. No objective moral standards exist. ]
The Pragmatism Cybrary - A research resource offering information on famous pragmatists, directories of centers and societies, philosophy lists, conferences, and publications.
Wikipedia: Pragmatism - Article from this openly-edited online reference.
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