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Alexander the Great (Greek: Μέγας ΑλέξανδροςThe name Αλέξανδρος derives from the Greek words άλεξ (to repel, shield, protect) and άνδρας (man), literally meaning "protector of men" or "manproof" (i.e. invincible by men). For further details on the origins of the name, see related section in disambiguation article. Megas Alexandros; July 21 356 BC — June 11 323 BC), also known as Alexander III, king of Macedon (336–323 BC), is considered one of the most successful military commanders in history, conquering most of his known world before his death. Alexander is also known in the Zoroastrian Middle Persian work Arda Wiraz Nāmag as "the accursed Alexander" due to his conquest of the Persian Empire and the destruction of its capital Persepolis. He is known as Eskandar in Persian and even acclaimed during the construction of the Great Wall Sadd-e Eskandar by the Parthian Dynasty. He is often identified as Dhul-Qarnayn in Middle Eastern traditions and is called al-Iskandar al-Kabeer in Arabic, Sikandar-e-azam in Urdu, Dul-Qarnayim in Hebrew, and Tre-Qarnayia in Aramaic (the two-horned one), apparently due to an image on coins minted during his rule that seemingly depicted him with the two ram's horns of the Egyptian god Ammon. He is also known as Sikandar in Urdu and Hindi, a term also used as a synonym for "expert" or "extremely skilled".
Following the unification of the multiple city-states of ancient Greece under the rule of his father, Philip II of Macedon, (a labour Alexander had to repeat twice because the southern Greeks rebelled after Philip's death), Alexander would conquer the Persian Empire, including Anatolia, Syria, Phoenicia, Gaza, Egypt, Bactria and Mesopotamia and extend the boundaries of his own empire as far as the Punjab. Alexander integrated foreigners (non-Macedonians, non-GreeksWhether the Macedonians of Alexander's time and before were Hellenes (Greeks) is disputed by scholars. The question largely depends on the classification of the Ancient Macedonian language. By separating Macedonians and Greeks in this sentence and others, no position in this debate is implied.) into his army and administration, leading some scholars to credit him with a "policy of fusion." He encouraged marriage between his army and foreigners, and practiced it himself. After twelve years of constant military campaigning, Alexander died, possibly of malaria, typhoid, or even viral encephalitis. His conquests ushered in centuries of Greek settlement and rule over distant areas, a period known as the Hellenistic Age. Alexander himself lived on in the history and myth of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. Already during his lifetime, and especially after his death, his exploits inspired a literary tradition in which he appears as a legendary hero in the tradition of Achilles.
Early life
Alexander the Great was the son of King Philip II of Macedonia and of his fourth wife, Epirote princess Olympias. According to Plutarch (Alexander 3.1,3), Olympias was impregnated not by Philip, who was afraid of her, and her affinity for sleeping in the company of snakes, but by Zeus Ammon. Plutarch (Alexander 2.2-3) relates that both Philip and Olympias dreamt of their son's future birth. Olympias dreamed of a loud burst of thunder and of lightning striking her womb. In Philip's dream, he sealed her womb with the seal of the lion. Alarmed by this, he consulted the seer Aristander of Telmessus, who determined that his wife was pregnant and that the child would have the character of a lion. More on [ Alexander the Great ]
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Alexander the Great
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Alexander the Great on the Web - Guide and web directory. Also covers related aspects of Macedonian, Persian and Hellenistic history, art and culture.
Meta Description: [ An exhaustive guide and web directory about Alexander the Great and his times. Also covers related aspects of Greek, Macedonian, Persian and Hellenistic history, art and culture. ]
Pothos.org - Resource with essays, timelines, and assistance for Alexander scholars.
Meta Description: [ The first and greatest web page about Alexander the Great. ]
Alexander of Macedon - Biography and details of his conquest. Includes maps and illustrations of the campaign, coinage and photographs.
Meta Description: [ Alexander the Great biography of the Macedonian king conqueror of Greece, Persia, Egypt. Covers history of Macedonia, Greece, Persia, Hellenism, and Hellenistic ]
Alexander the Great - Review the life of this emperor, and view a list of related books.
Meta Description: [ The life and family of Alexander III of Macedon. ]
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Alexander the Great - Presents history and life of this Macedonian emperor, pictures and maps. Includes links and resources.
Alexander the great - Succinct summary of highlights of Alexander's life. Some pages in French with related advertising.
Meta Description: [ All the epic from Alexander the Great ]
Alexander the Great - Biography and battles of Alexander the Great, king of Macedonia.
Alexander the Great - the career and impact of the great Macedonian conqueror and the main themes of his reign by Richard Stoneman, 2004 by subscription.
Meta Description: [ Alexander the Great Book by Richard Stoneman; 2004 ]
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Alexander the Great and his Successors - A scholarly bibliography of books, monographs and collections in PDF, maintainted by Macedonian historian Waldermar Heckel.
Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions - Frank L. Holt solves the mystery of the coins from Bactria during the reign of Alexander, 2003 by subscription.
Meta Description: [ Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions Book by Frank L. Holt; 2003 ]
Alexander the Great History Project - Site provides information about Alexander the Great, his life, his family, his conquests, and his battles, including links to various Alexander the Great sites and resources on the WWW.
Alexander the Great of Macedon - Detailed, illustrated web site on the life of Alexander, Phillip II, and his Macedonian environment.
Meta Description: [ Alexander conquered much of what was then the civilized world, governed by his divine ambition of the world conquest and creation of universal world monarchy. ]
Alexander the Great Project - Alexander's early life, on the Macedonian throne, the battles in Persia, India, Egypt, marriage and his death.
Meta Description: [ Alexandros III Philippou Makedonon (Alexander the Great, Alexander III of Macedon) (356-323 B.C.), king of Macedonia, born in late July 356 BC in Pela, Macedonia, the greatest military genius in history. He conquered the whole civilized world, governed by his divine ambition of the world conqu... ]
Alexander the Great [About.com] - Resources on Alexander's youth and life, his battles and campaigns, the ancient sources, and timelines.
Meta Description: [ Famous People. Biographies of important ancient people, including Cleopatra, Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, and Constantine the Great. ]
Alexander the Great's Feint Attack: A Reappraisal - Explains why Alexander used the strategy of opening the Battle of the Granicus with a feint attack.
Meta Description: [ For research on Ancient History, Classics, Classical Greek, Latin Language and Literature, and Greek Mythology. ]
Alexander the Great's First Great Victory - Article by John R. Mixter for Military History Magazine on the first major military victory of Alexander the Great.
Meta Description: [ For research on Ancient History, Classics, Classical Greek, Latin Language and Literature, and Greek Mythology. ]
Alexander the Great: World Conqueror - Historical resource provides an entertaining overview of Alexander's adventures and personality.
Meta Description: [ The story of Alexander the Great. What we know makes him seem more like a character from Greek mythology than a real human being -- and that's exactly how he would have liked it. ]
Army of Alexander the Great - Succinct overview with detailed bibliography of Alexander's army within the context of ancient Greek warfare.
Beyond Renault: Alexander the Great in Fiction - Extensive list of representations of Alexander in fictional print mediums and some video; includes reviews of many of the listed works by an Alexander specialist.
Meta Description: [ Lists and reviews of novels and other media which involve Alexander the Great ]
Four Stories of Prince Al - Some of the legends about the famous youth who would one day conquer the known world.
Meta Description: [ Four Stories of Prince Al - Alexander the Great - The Youth of Alexander the Great, his crown princely feats and bravado ]
Gordian Knot - A metaphor for an intractable problem, solved by a bold stroke.
Hephaistion - Philalexandros - Interesting web-site devoted to Alexander's closest friend, Hephaistion, with relevant information about Alexander.
Meta Description: [ A website about Hephaistion, best-friend and general of Alexander the Great ]
History House: Alexander the Great - Short irreverent biography that picks out several incidents from Alexander's life.
Meta Description: [ Alex a cross-dressing, grudge carrying, god walking on earth? Believe it! ]
History of Macedonia - Useful overview of Macedonian history before and after Alexander the Great.
In Search of Alexander's Tomb - Devoted to discussion of just where Alexander might have been buried, and what has become of his tomb - one of history's great mysteries.
Leaders and Battles: Alexander III, - Concise overviews of all Alexander the Great's most famous battles; illustrations, charts, and technical explanations. Deep-linked from the larger Leaders and Battles site.
Skanda: The Alexander Romance in India - 1937 research article by N. Gopala Pillai examining the historical and mythological relationship between Alexander the Great and the Indian wargod Skanda-Murugan.
Meta Description: [ 1937 research article examing the historical and mythological relationship between Alexander the Great and Indian war god Skanda-Murugan ]
The Great Homepage of Alexander, or Something Like That - A brief, selective history of Alexander's life, with illustrations.
The Museums of Macedonia: Royal Tombs - The Macedonian museum housing the remarkable Vergina Tomb finds of Alexander the Great's family. Summary of treasures found and history of the excavations.
Meta Description: [ A virtual tour of all the museums in Macedonia, Greece. A sub-site of Macedonian Heritage. ]
The Rise and Fall of Alexander the Great - Brief biographies of Alexander the Great, his father Philip, and his mother, Olympias.
The Royal Tomb II at Vergina Reveals Alexander the Great - A 12-year study of the destiny of Alexander the Great and his family's relics indicates that they lie in the royal tombs of Vergina.
The Ten-Horned Beast: Alexander the Great - Part of Livius' site on ancient history, a detailed 18-part history of Alexander's life and battles.
Meta Description: [ The world's largest site on Alexander the Great: biography in 18 parts, 70 translated texts (including all relevant Babylonian and Persian texts), commentaries, maps, and many pictures. ]
The Wars of Alexander the Great, 336-323 B.C. - An insight into the achievements of one of the greatest generals ever known by Waldemar Heckel, 2003 by subscription.
Meta Description: [ The Wars of Alexander the Great, 336-323 B.C. Book by Waldemar Heckel; 2003 ]
Undying Glory: The Pursuit of Alexander - Comprehensive biography of Alexander's life and conquests; detailed illustrative graphics.
Upset at Issus - Article by Harry J. Maihafer for Military History Magazine on Alexander's defeat of Darius.
Meta Description: [ For research on Ancient History, Classics, Classical Greek, Latin Language and Literature, and Greek Mythology. ]
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